Unit+2-+Classical+Criticism

e.g. The Gods and Goddesses of Homer's //Iliad// lie and cheat. Plato said that this is not a good and ethical example to follow or imitate. So, reading such works would harm rather than benefit the society. ** Discuss Aristotle's views on literature as postulated in his //Poetics//. ** 1- to state the general principles of tragedy as he saw them applied in his time. 2- to respond to many of Aristotle's ideas and arguments concerning literature (poetry). 1- Should be good —we do not feel pity for evil characters. 2- Must not be a perfect person –must have a flaw (like pride, ambition…etc). 3- Must experience a reversal of fortune – like a fall from happiness to misery.
 * 1) ** Discuss Plato's views of literature as postulated in his //The Republic//. **
 * The Greeks of the fifth century B.C were the first to develop a philosophy of art and life that became the foundation for most of the literary theories we have nowadays.
 * Those ancient philosophers began a debate about the nature and function of literature that led to the emergence of literary criticism.
 * Before Plato, only scattered comments about the nature and value of literature can be found. It is Plato who started the interest in literary theory and criticism.
 * A. N. Whitehead claims that "all of Western philosophy is but a footnote to Plato".
 * Plato valued philosophy (logic and reason) over emotions and feelings. He wrote above his office door "Let no one enter here who is not a geometer."
 * The core of Plato's thought is in his doctrine of essences, ideas and forms.
 * In his //Republic//, Plato discussed ideas related to the concepts of truth, beauty, and goodness; the nature of realty; the structure of society; the nature being; knowledge, ethics and morality.
 * He also insisted that there is an ultimate reality (the ONE) which is spiritual and metaphysical. This metaphysical reality is made of ideal forms which are independent of human thinking. This means that these ideal forms exist whether we think of them or not.
 * He states that we actually live in a physical world and we cannot access the metaphysical world of ideal forms. Our physical reality is only a shadow or a replica but not the REAL thing.
 * Plato introduced the idea of "mimesis" to explain the poet's contribution. According to this theory, poets only present "a verbal image of things in the realm of appearance: an imitation of things that are not fully real." They are just imitators of an imitation. In their poetry, they do not present the ideal forms because it is impossible for them to do so. They also cannot reproduce their own physical reality. They only try to be realistic through imitating the objects or feelings which they are exposed to. They produce only a copy of a copy. According to Plato, poets are two steps removed from reality.
 * Plato believed that poets should be banished from his ideal city and accused them of two things:
 * 1) Plato believed that if poets are only imitating shadows then people should not trust them, for they are liars. If this is the case, then they should not be allowed into the ideal city because they will influence the ethics and morality of the people.
 * 1) He also stressed that poets invest in base human emotions. Logic and reason are not a feature of literature. Therefore, literary works (like epic poetry and tragedy) do not bring a healthy release of bent up emotions. The reader will consequently be emotional and irrational in everyday life which will harm the order of the ideal city.
 * Whereas Plato concerned himself with morality, Aristotle was interested in the elements of a literary work.
 * Aristotle was Plato's pupil but differed with him on certain philosophical issues related to literature.
 * Aristotle's //Poetics// has become the cornerstone of Western literary criticism. In this work, Aristotle began a discussion of the components of literary works that continues to the present day.
 * His purpose in the //Poetics// was:
 * Aristotle agreed with Plato that all art is imitation and poets are just imitators. He believed that poets (like all humans) enjoy imitation.
 * He disagrees with Plato, however, regarding the view that imitations are harmful to the structure of society and its values. Aristotle introduced a very important idea: we should not judge literature in ethical or political terms; rather literature occupies a place of its own. It occupies an aesthetic place that has its rules and standards.
 * For Aristotle, mimesis is "a fictional representation that, when composed correctly, improves its readers, both intellectually and emotionally.
 * He answered Plato's accusations using Plato's method of reasoning:
 * 1) Aristotle claims: it is true that poets are imitators but their poetry present things as they should be not as they are. So, their poetry is more universal and represent an ideal (the poet's ideal). Poets are not historians who should present facts. Poets can address, in their poetry, possible as well as probable realities. Therefore, for Aristotle, poets are not liars and their poetry is not harmful to society or values. In fact, in Aristotle's logic, poets are philosophers.
 * 2) Unlike Plato, Aristotle believed that tragedy (a literary genre he discussed a lot) does not deal with base and harmful emotions. He rejects Plato's view that tragedy brings an unhealthy release of emotions. For Aristotle, watching tragedies (or reading them) brings about an esthetic pleasure. We enjoy the representation of tragic events as well as feel pity and fear which brings about a healthy experience called Catharsis. We do not feel the pain of the characters but only pity their fates and we only feel such pity for good characters (tragic heroes).
 * The tragic hero in Aristotle's view:
 * Aristotle believes that a tragedy should consider and preserve the three unities of time, place and action.
 * Aristotle theories of literature can be found in the formalistic approaches to literary criticism (which prevailed during the early 20th C.) because these schools were concerned with the elements of a literary work not with the ideology behind it.